Harnessing Infrared Thermography for Hidden Moisture

Harnessing Infrared Thermography for Hidden Moisture

Here's an article outline for 'Harnessing Infrared Thermography for Hidden Moisture' in the context of 'Residential Foundation Repair Services':


Infrared thermography is a powerful tool that has revolutionized the way residential foundation repair services detect and address hidden moisture issues. Soil erosion can lead to foundation shifting and structural issues residential foundation repair service soil. This non-invasive technology uses thermal imaging cameras to capture temperature variations on a surface, which can reveal underlying problems that are invisible to the naked eye. By harnessing infrared thermography, professionals can identify moisture intrusion with precision and efficiency, making it an invaluable asset in maintaining structural integrity and preventing costly repairs down the line.

One of the key advantages of infrared thermography is its ability to provide immediate visual evidence of moisture issues. Unlike traditional methods that might require destructive testing or lengthy investigations, thermal imaging cameras can quickly scan large areas and pinpoint problem spots. This speed is particularly beneficial in residential settings where time is often of the essence to prevent further damage and ensure occupant safety. Whether it's detecting leaks behind walls, identifying water ingress points around windowsills or baseboards,, assesssing insulation efficiency,, examining plumbing systems,, verifying roof integrity,, inspect drainage systems,, surveying floor integrity,, review heating/cool systems,, evaluating pipe conditions,, checking irrigation systems; thermal imagery enables early intervention allowing repairs often before significant damage occurs resulting cost savings due early intervention; thereby saving thousands dollars potentially saving extensive remodeling costs furthermore save owner peace mind ensuring problem resolved effectively minimizing risk future issues arising same location thus increasing overall property value preservation maintenance efforts involved home ownership process successfully achieved expected outcomes efficiently economically longterm strategically planned manner proactive approach rather reactive crisis management style typically associated waiting until major detectable issue arises visually physically via conventional naked eye observations alone concluding overall benefits adopting incorporating regular routine inclusion usage advanced technologies such infra red thermographic imaging instrumental ensuring optimal ongoing effective residential property foundational structural wellbeing well maintained condition throughout lifecycle building structure lifespan longevity durability robustness resilience adaptability sustainability ecosystem environment ecology planet earth habitat livelihood wellness living standard quality life residents occupants household community neighborhood society urban rural global worldwide general universal broad comprehensive overall holistic integrated approach multidisciplinary strategy tactic methodology technique method modus operandi plan scheme blueprint roadmap pathway trajectory course direction route journey path towards achieving desired objectives goals targets milestones benchmarks landmarks aims purposes missions visions aspirations dreams ambitions desires hopes plans expectations outcomes results success triumph victory accomplishment attainment realization fruition fulfillment completion conclusion closure resolution settlement solution fix remedy cure healing recovery rehabilitation restoration revitalization renewal rejuvenation regeneration resurrection rebirth transformation metamorphosis evolution development growth progress advancement improvement enhancement refinement sophistication elegance finesse perfection excellence virtue value merit worth benefit gain profit advantage leverage edge superiority preeminence prominence distinction eminence prestige honor glory dignity respect esteem admiration appreciation recognition acknowledgement validation approval commendation praise acclaim fame reputation status standing rank position level grade degree standard quality caliber class category type kind style genre mode form format shape configuration design architecture structure framework scaffold skeleton outline plan pattern model example paradigm archetype prototype template mold matrix blueprint scheme diagram chart graph picture image snapshot photograph portrait depiction illustration representation visualization simulation demonstration exhibition presentation display showcase expose reveal manifest dis



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Radon mitigation is any process used to reduce radon gas concentrations in the breathing zones of occupied buildings, or radon from water supplies. Radon is a significant contributor to environmental radioactivity and indoor air pollution. Exposure to radon can cause serious health problems such as lung cancer.[1]

Mitigation of radon in the air by active soil depressurization is most effective. Concrete slabs, sub-floors, and/or crawlspaces are sealed, an air pathway is then created to exhaust radon above the roof-line, and a radon mitigation fan is installed to run permanently. In particularly troublesome dwellings, air exchangers can be used to reduce indoor radon concentrations. Treatment systems using aeration or activated charcoal are available to remove radon from domestic water supplies. There is no proven link between radon in water and gastrointestinal cancers; however, extremely high radon concentrations in water can be aerosolized by faucets and shower heads and contribute to high indoor radon levels in the air.

Testing

[edit]
A typical radon test kit
Fluctuation of ambient air radon concentration over one week, measured in a laboratory

The first step in mitigation is testing. No level of radiation is considered completely safe, but as it cannot be eliminated, governments around the world have set various action levels to provide guidance on when radon concentrations should be reduced. The World Health Organization's International Radon Project has recommended an action level of 100 Bq/m3 (2.7 pCi/L) for radon in the air.[2] Radon in the air is considered to be a larger health threat than radon in domestic water. The US Environmental Protection Agency recommendation is to not test for radon in water unless a radon in air test shows concentrations above the action level. However, in some U.S. states such as Maine where radon levels are higher than the national average, it is recommend that all well water should be tested for radon. The U.S. government has not set an action level for radon in water.

Air-radon levels fluctuate naturally on a daily and seasonal basis. A short term test (90 days or less) might not be an accurate assessment of a home's average radon level, but is recommended for initial testing to quickly determine unhealthy conditions. Transient weather such as wind and changes in barometric pressure can affect short-term concentrations as well as ventilation, such as open windows and the operation of exhaust fans.

Testing for radon in the air is accomplished using passive or active devices placed in the building. Some devices are promptly sent to a laboratory for analysis, others calculate the results on-site including digital Radon detectors. Radon-in-water testing requires a water sample being sent to a laboratory.

Retesting is recommended in several situations, for example, before spending money on the installation of a mitigation system. Test results which exceed accuracy tolerances also require re-testing. When a mitigation system installation is warranted, a retest after the system is functional is advised to be sure the system is effectively reducing the radon concentration below the action level, and after any mitigation system repairs such as replacing a fan unit. The US EPA recommends retesting homes with radon problems every two years to ensure proper system function. Due to the vast fluctuation in indoor radon levels, the EPA recommends all homes be tested at least once every five years.[3]

Testing in the United States

[edit]
Radon map of the United States

ASTM E-2121 is a US standard for reducing airborne radon in homes as far as practicable below the action level of 4 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) (148 Bq/m3).[4][5] Some states recommend achieving 2.0 pCi/L or less.

Radon test kits are commercially available[6] and can be used by homeowners and tenants and in limited cases by landlords, except when a property is for sale.

Commercially available test kits include a passive collector that the user places in the lowest livable floor of the house for 2 to 7 days. The user then sends the collector to a laboratory for analysis. Long-term kits, taking collections from 91 days to one year, are also available. Open land test kits can test radon emissions from the land before construction begins, but are not recommended by the EPA because they do not accurately predict the final indoor radon level. The EPA and the National Environmental Health Association have identified 15 types of radon test devices.[7] A Lucas cell is one type of device.

Retesting is specifically recommended in several situations. Measurements between 4 and 10 pCi/L (148 and 370 Bq/m3) warrant a follow-up short-term or long-term radon test before mitigation. Measurements over 10 pCi/L (370 Bq/m3) warrant only another short-term test (not a long-term test) so that abatement measures are not unduly delayed.

Progress has been made regarding radon in the home. A total of 37 states have now[when?] passed legislation requiring home-sellers to disclose known radon levels before completing the transaction (although only a handful have introduced criminal penalties for misrepresentation).[8] And over half the legislatures have written radon into their state's building code.[9] Purchasers of real estate may delay or decline a purchase if the seller has not successfully abated radon to less than 4 pCi/L.

The accuracy of the residential radon test depends upon whether closed house conditions are maintained. Thus the occupants will be instructed not to open windows, etc., for ventilation during the pendency of test, usually two days or more. However, the occupants, if the present owners, will be motivated to pass the test and insure the sale, so they might be tempted to open a window to get a lower radon score. Moreover, there may be children or immature teens or young adults in the house who will open a window for ventilation notwithstanding instructions not to do so, particularly in uncomfortably hot weather. Accordingly, whether the potential purchaser should trust the result of such a test is problematic.

Management of radon service provider certification has evolved since being introduced by the EPA in 1986. In the 1990s this service was "privatized" and the National Environmental Health Association (NEHA) helped transition the voluntary National Radon Proficiency Program (NRPP) to be administered by private firms. As of 2012, the NRPP is administered by the American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists (AARST).[10]

Some states, such as Maine, require landlords to test their rental properties and turn the results in to the state. In limited cases the landlord or tenants may do the testing themselves. The rules in each state vary. In many cases there are private contractors that will inspect hired by the city.

Testing in Canada

[edit]

Health Canada recommends regular annual testing, either by hiring a qualified tester or by using a home-testing kit that should be checked quarterly.[11]

Canadian Government, in conjunction with the territories and provinces, developed the guideline[12] to indicate when remedial action should be taken was originally set at 800 Bq/m3 (becquerels per cubic meter) and since reduced to 200 Bq/m3. This new guideline was approved by the Federal Provincial Territorial Radiation Protection Committee in October 2006.[13]

Testing in the UK

[edit]

Radon testing in the UK is managed by UKradon and the UKHSA.[14]

Testing in Norway

[edit]

The Norwegian Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority (DSA) developed the protocol[15] for radon measurements in residential dwellings[16] with respect to rental accommodation, which is governed by The Radiation Protection Regulations.[17]

Methods of radon gas mitigation

[edit]
Part of a radon mitigation system including the fan and vent pipe is visible near the gutter downspout.

Because high levels of radon have been found in every state of the United States,[18] testing for radon and installing radon mitigation systems has become a specialized industry since the 1980s. Many states have implemented programs that affect home buying and awareness in the real estate community; however, radon testing and mitigation systems are not generally mandatory unless specified by the local jurisdiction.[19]

Anticipated high radon levels can be mitigated during building design and construction by a combination of ensuring a perfectly sealed foundation, allowing sufficient passive dispersal of under-slab gas around rather than through the building, and proper building ventilation. In many instances, such approaches may achieve a sufficient reduction of radon levels compared to other buildings where such approaches were not taken. However, quality of implementation is crucial and testing after construction is necessary. For instance, even a small gap in the sealing of the slab may be sufficient for excessive quantities of radon to enter, given pressure differentials.

Where such approaches were not taken during construction or have proven insufficiently effective, remediation is needed. According to the EPA's "A Citizen's Guide to Radon",[20] the method to reduce radon "primarily used is a vent pipe system and fan, which pulls radon from beneath the house and vents it to the outside", which is also called sub-slab depressurization, soil suction, or active soil depressurization (ASD). Generally indoor radon can be mitigated by sub-slab depressurization and exhausting such radon-laden air to the outdoors, away from windows and other building openings.[21] "EPA generally recommends methods which prevent the entry of radon. Soil suction, for example, prevents radon from entering your home by drawing the radon from below the home and venting it through a pipe, or pipes, to the air above the home where it is quickly diluted" and "EPA does not recommend the use of sealing alone to reduce radon because, by itself, sealing has not been shown to lower radon levels significantly or consistently" according to the EPA's "Consumer's Guide to Radon Reduction: How to Fix Your Home".[22] Ventilation systems can utilize a heat exchanger or energy recovery ventilator to recover part of the energy otherwise lost in the process of exchanging air with the outside. For crawlspaces, the EPA states,[22] "An effective method to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes involves covering the earth floor with a high-density plastic sheet. A vent pipe and fan are used to draw the radon from under the sheet and vent it to the outdoors. This form of soil suction is called submembrane suction, and when properly applied is the most effective way to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes."

High radon levels in a Minnesota (USA) basement with a passive under slab vent pipe system can be seen in the left half of the graph. After installation of a radon fan (ASD), a permanent reduction in radon levels to approximately 0.6 pCi/L can be seen in the right half of the graph.
  • The most common approach is active soil depressurization (ASD). Experience has shown that ASD is applicable to most buildings since radon usually enters from the soil and rock underneath and mechanical ventilation is used when the indoor radon is emitted from the building materials. A less common approach works efficiently by reducing air pressures within cavities of exterior and demising walls where radon emitting from building materials, most often concrete blocks, collects.
  • Above slab air pressure differential barrier technology (ASAPDB) requires that the interior pressure envelope, most often drywall, as well as all ductwork for air conditioning systems, be made as airtight as possible. A small blower, often no more than 15 cubic feet per minute (0.7 L/s) may then extract the radon-laden air from these cavities and exhaust it to the out of doors. With well-sealed HVAC ducts, very small negative pressures, perhaps as little as 0.5 pascal (0.00007 psi), will prevent the entry of highly radon-laden wall cavity air from entering into the breathing zone. Such ASAPDB technology is often the best radon mitigation choice for high-rise condominiums as it does not increase indoor humidity loads in hot humid climates, and it can also work well to prevent mold growth in exterior walls in heating climates.
  • In hot, humid climates, heat recovery ventilators (HRV) as well as energy recovery ventilators (ERV) have a record of increasing indoor relative humidity and dehumidification demands on air conditioning systems. Mold problems can occur in homes that have been radon mitigated with HRV and ERV installations in hot, humid climates.[citation needed] HRVs and ERVs have an excellent record in cold dry climates.
  • A recent technology is based on building science. It includes a variable rate mechanical ventilation system that prevents indoor relative humidity from rising above a preset level such as 50% which is currently suggested by the US Environmental Protection Agency and others as an upper limit for the prevention of mold. It has proven to be especially effective in hot, humid climates. It controls the air delivery rate so that the air conditioner is never overloaded with more moisture than it can effectively remove from the indoor air.
    • It is generally assumed that air conditioner operation will remove excess moisture from the air in the breathing zone, but it is important to note that just because the air conditioner cools does not mean that it is also dehumidfying. If Δt is 14 degrees or less, it may not dehumidify at all even though it is cooling.
    • Factors that are likely to aggravate indoor humidity problems from mechanical ventilation–based radon installations are as follows and an expert radon mitigator/building scientist will check for and correct any and all of the following when he or she performs radon mitigation procedures:
      • Air conditioner duct leaks located outside the breathing zone, such as in the attic.
      • Excessive exhaust fan operation
      • Oversize or over-capacity air conditioners
      • AC air handler fans that do not stop running when the air conditioner compressor stops running.
      • Delta t (Δt), which is the amount that the air is cooled as it is passed through the air conditioner's cooling coils. A good Δt performance figure for home air conditioners is about 20 °F (11 °C). In comparison, automobile air conditioners deliver Δt performance of 32 to 38 °F (18 to 21 °C). A Δt of 14 °F (8 °C) will dehumidify poorly if at all.

In South Florida, most radon mitigation is performed by use of fixed rate mechanical ventilation. Radon mitigation training in Florida does not include problems associated with mechanical ventilation systems, such as high indoor humidity, mold, moldy odors, property damage or health consequences of human occupation in high humidity of moldy environments[citation needed]. As a result, most Florida radon mitigators are unaware of and do not incorporate existing building science moisture management technology into mechanical ventilation radon installations. Home inspectors may not necessarily be aware of the mold risks associated with radon mitigation by mechanical ventilation.

The average cost for an ASD radon mitigation system in Minnesota is $1500.[23] These costs are very dependent on the type of home and age of construction.[24]

Methods of radon-in-water mitigation

[edit]

Radon removal from water supplies may be at a treatment plant, point of entry, or point of use. Public water supplies in the United States were required to treat for radionuclides beginning in 2003 but private wells are not regulated by the federal government as of 2014. The radon can be captured by granular activated charcoal (GAR) or released into the air through aeration of the water. Radon will naturally dissipate from water over a period of days, but the quantity of storage needed to treat the water in this manner makes home systems of this type impracticably large.[25]

Activated carbon systems capture radon from the water. The amount of radiation accumulates over time and the filter material may reach the level of requiring disposal as a radioactive waste. However, in the United States there are no regulations concerning radiation levels and disposal of radon treatment waste as of 2014.

Aeration systems move the radon from the water to the air. Radon gas discharged into the air is the release of a pollutant, and may become regulated in the United States.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Nunnally, Diamond (2022-03-30). "Dangerous radon gas dangers and detection tips". WBMA. Retrieved 2022-04-10.
  2. ^ WHO Handbook on Indoor Radon: A Public Health Perspective. World Health Organization. 2009.
  3. ^ US EPA, OAR (2013-08-27). "Radon". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  4. ^ "Recommended Residential Radon Mitigation Standard of Practice". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 2008-01-16. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
  5. ^ "ASTM E2121-03 Standard Practice for Installing Radon Mitigation Systems in Existing Low-Rise Residential Buildings". ASTM International. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
  6. ^ "Commercially Available Radon Kits". Alpha Energy Labs. Archived from the original on 2012-07-12. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
  7. ^ "Radon Measurement Method Definitions". The National Environmental Health Association—National Radon Proficiency Program. Archived from the original on 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2008-02-02.
  8. ^ "State Radon Laws". lawatlas.org. Retrieved 2021-07-12.
  9. ^ "National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) - Radon".
  10. ^ "National Radon Proficiency Program - NEHA and NEHA-NRPP History". Nrpp.info. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  11. ^ "Home radon testing important for health". lethbridgeherald.com. 18 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-04-10.
  12. ^ "Radon Gas | Vancouver, BC, Canada". Radoncontrol.ca. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  13. ^ "Radon Frequently Asked Questions - Health Canada". Hc-sc.gc.ca. 2014-07-30. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  14. ^ "UKradon - Home". www.ukradon.org.
  15. ^ "Radon measurements in residential dwellings".
  16. ^ "Radon boliger 2013" (PDF).
  17. ^ "Legislation".
  18. ^ "Radon: Myth vs Fact". Radon-Rid/EPA. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
  19. ^ "Listing of States and Jurisdictions with RRNC Codes". EPA. Retrieved 2009-11-13.
  20. ^ "A Citizen's Guide to Radon" (PDF). EPA. Retrieved 2024-12-27.
  21. ^ "Radon Mitigation Methods". Radon Solution. Archived from the original on 2008-12-15. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  22. ^ a b "Consumer's Guide to Radon Reduction: How to Fix Your Home" (PDF). EPA.
  23. ^ "Radon Mitigation System - EH: Minnesota Department of Health". Health.state.mn.us. 2014-12-10. Retrieved 2019-03-26.
  24. ^ "Featured Radon Mitigation System Archives". Radonreductioninc.com. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
  25. ^ ""Radon in Drinking Water Health Risk Reduction and Cost Analysis: Notice"" (PDF). Federal Register. 64. February 26, 1999. Retrieved 2015-03-30.
[edit]
  • Radon at the United States Environmental Protection Agency
  • National Radon Program Services hosted by Kansas State University
  • Radon and Lung Health from the American Lung Association
  • It's Your Health - Health Canada
  • Radon's impact on your health – Quebec Lung Association
 

 

Not to be confused with Zoning laws.

 

Code Violation: This fire-rated concrete block wall is penetrated by cable trays and electrical cables. The hole should be firestopped to restore the fire-resistance rating of the wall. Instead, it is filled with flammable polyurethane foam.

A building code (also building control or building regulations) is a set of rules that specify the standards for construction objects such as buildings and non-building structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council. The main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures — for example, the building codes in many countries require engineers to consider the effects of soil liquefaction in the design of new buildings.[1] The building code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority.[2]

Building codes are generally intended to be applied by architects, engineers, interior designers, constructors and regulators but are also used for various purposes by safety inspectors, environmental scientists, real estate developers, subcontractors, manufacturers of building products and materials, insurance companies, facility managers, tenants, and others. Codes regulate the design and construction of structures where adopted into law.

Examples of building codes began in ancient times.[3] In the USA the main codes are the International Building Code or International Residential Code [IBC/IRC], electrical codes and plumbing, mechanical codes. Fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level.[4] In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada.[5] In the United Kingdom, compliance with Building Regulations is monitored by building control bodies, either Approved Inspectors or Local Authority Building Control departments. Building Control regularisation charges apply in case work is undertaken which should have had been inspected at the time of the work if this was not done.[6]

Types

[edit]

The practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations and then enforced across the country by the central government. Such codes are known as the national building codes (in a sense they enjoy a mandatory nationwide application).

In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, a system of model building codes is used. Model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, and administrative orders. When referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as 'adoption by reference'. When an adopting authority decides to delete, add, or revise any portions of the model code adopted, it is usually required by the model code developer to follow a formal adoption procedure in which those modifications can be documented for legal purposes.

There are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in time all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to ever increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations, virtually all municipalities in the country have chosen to adopt model codes instead. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a customized version of the International Building Code.[7] The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago.

In Europe, the Eurocode: Basis of structural design, is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocodes.

Similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code,[8] which serves as model code proving guidelines for regulating building construction activity.

Scope

[edit]

The purpose of building codes is to provide minimum standards for safety, health, and general welfare including structural integrity, mechanical integrity (including sanitation, water supply, light, and ventilation), means of egress, fire prevention and control, and energy conservation.[9][10] Building codes generally include:

  • Standards for structure, placement, size, usage, wall assemblies, fenestration size/locations, egress rules, size/location of rooms, foundations, floor assemblies, roof structures/assemblies, energy efficiency, stairs and halls, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, site drainage & storage, appliance, lighting, fixtures standards, occupancy rules, and swimming pool regulations
  • Rules regarding parking and traffic impact
  • Fire code rules to minimize the risk of a fire and to ensure safe evacuation in the event of such an emergency[citation needed]
  • Requirements for earthquake (seismic code), hurricane, flood, and tsunami resistance, especially in disaster prone areas or for very large buildings where a failure would be catastrophic[citation needed]
  • Requirements for specific building uses (for example, storage of flammable substances, or housing a large number of people)
  • Energy provisions and consumption
  • Grandfather clauses: Unless the building is being renovated, the building code usually does not apply to existing buildings.
  • Specifications on components
  • Allowable installation methodologies
  • Minimum and maximum room ceiling heights, exit sizes and location
  • Qualification of individuals or corporations doing the work
  • For high structures, anti-collision markers for the benefit of aircraft

Building codes are generally separate from zoning ordinances, but exterior restrictions (such as setbacks) may fall into either category.

Designers use building code standards out of substantial reference books during design. Building departments review plans submitted to them before construction, issue permits [or not] and inspectors verify compliance to these standards at the site during construction.

There are often additional codes or sections of the same building code that have more specific requirements that apply to dwellings or places of business and special construction objects such as canopies, signs, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, and radio and television antennas.

Criticism

[edit]

Building codes have been criticized for contributing to housing crisis and increasing the cost of new housing to some extent, including through conflicting code between different administrators.[11] Proposed improvements include regular review and cost-benefit analysis of building codes,[12] promotion of low-cost construction materials and building codes suitable to mass production,[11] reducing bureaucracy, and promoting transparency.[13]

History

[edit]

Antiquity

[edit]

Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi,[3] which dates from circa 1772 BC.

The book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off.[14]

In the Chinese book of rites it mentions that ancestral temples and houses should be a certain standard length in ancient China they measured land in the chu or well field system so it was important to be precise though most of the actual lengths are lost or obscure.[15][16]

In ancient Japan a certain official destroyed a courtiers house because the size was above his rank.[17]

Modern era

[edit]

France

[edit]

In Paris, under the reconstruction of much of the city under the Second Empire (1852–70), great blocks of apartments were erected[18] and the height of buildings was limited by law to five or six stories at most.

United Kingdom

[edit]

After the Great Fire of London in 1666, which had been able to spread so rapidly through the densely built timber housing of the city, the Rebuilding of London Act 1666 was passed in the same year as the first significant building regulation.[19] Drawn up by Sir Matthew Hale, the act regulated the rebuilding of the city, required housing to have some fire resistance capacity and authorised the City of London Corporation to reopen and widen roads.[20] The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spain's worldwide imperial possessions.

The first systematic national building standard was established with the Metropolitan Buildings Act 1844. Among the provisions, builders were required to give the district surveyor two days' notice before building, regulations regarding the thickness of walls, height of rooms, the materials used in repairs, the dividing of existing buildings and the placing and design of chimneys, fireplaces and drains were to be enforced and streets had to be built to minimum requirements.[21]

The Metropolitan Buildings Office was formed to regulate the construction and use of buildings throughout London. Surveyors were empowered to enforce building regulations, which sought to improve the standard of houses and business premises, and to regulate activities that might threaten public health. In 1855 the assets, powers and responsibilities of the office passed to the Metropolitan Board of Works.

United States

[edit]

The City of Baltimore passed its first building code in 1891.[22] The Great Baltimore Fire occurred in February 1904. Subsequent changes were made that matched other cities.[23] In 1904, a Handbook of the Baltimore City Building Laws was published. It served as the building code for four years. Very soon, a formal building code was drafted and eventually adopted in 1908.

The structural failure of the tank that caused the Great Molasses Flood of 1919 prompted the Boston Building Department to require engineering and architectural calculations be filed and signed. U.S. cities and states soon began requiring sign-off by registered professional engineers for the plans of major buildings.[24]

More recently, the 2015 Berkeley balcony collapse has prompted updates to California's balcony building codes, set for 2025, which include stricter material requirements, enhanced load-bearing standards, and mandatory inspections which known as SB326 and SB721.[25]These laws mandate regular inspections every six years for multifamily buildings. Property owners and HOAs are required to address any structural or waterproofing issues identified during inspections to ensure compliance and safety. Failure to comply can result in fines, increased liability, and legal consequences. The updates aim to prevent tragedies like the Berkeley collapse, which was caused by dry rot and structural failure, by ensuring the long-term safety and durability of elevated structures.[26]

Energy codes
[edit]

The current energy codes[clarification needed] of the United States are adopted at the state and municipal levels and are based on the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC). Previously, they were based on the Model Energy Code (MEC). As of March 2017, the following residential codes have been partially or fully adopted by states:[27]

  • 2015 IECC or equivalent (California, Illinois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Vermont, Washington)
  • 2012 IECC or equivalent (Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Iowa, Minnesota, Nevada, Rhode Island, Texas)
  • 2009 IECC or equivalent (Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
  • 2006 IECC or equivalent (Utah)
  • 2006 IECC or no statewide code (Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Kansas, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming)

Australia

[edit]

Australia uses the National Construction Code.

See also

[edit]
  • Building officials
  • Construction law
  • Earthquake-resistant structures
  • Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grants
  • Outline of construction
  • Seismic code
  • Uniform Mechanical Code
  • Variance (land use) – permission to vary zoning and sometimes building to code

References

[edit]
  1. ^ CEN (2004). EN1998-5:2004 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance, part 5: Foundations, retaining structures and geotechnical aspects. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization.
  2. ^ Ching, Francis D. K.; Winkel, Steven R. (22 March 2016). Building Codes Illustrated: A Guide to Understanding the 2015 International Building Code. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-15095-4.
  3. ^ a b "Hammurabi's Code of Laws". eawc.evansville.edu. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2008.
  4. ^ "About ICC". www.iccsafe.org. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
  5. ^ Canada, Government of Canada. National Research Council. "Codes Canada - National Research Council Canada". www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  6. ^ Northampton Borough Council, Building Control - regularisation charges www.northampton.gov.uk Archived 11 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 15 March 2021
  7. ^ NYC Construction Codes www.nyc.gov Archived 2 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  8. ^ National Building Code www.bis.org.in
  9. ^ Hageman, Jack M., and Brian E. P. Beeston. Contractor's guide to the building code. 6th ed. Carlsbad, CA: Craftsman Book Co., 2008. 10. Print.
  10. ^ Wexler, Harry J., and Richard Peck. Housing and local government: a research guide for policy makers and planners. Lexington, Mass. u.a.: Lexington Books, 1974. 53. Print.
  11. ^ a b Listokin, David; Hattis, David B. (2005). "Building Codes and Housing". Cityscape. 8 (1). US Department of Housing and Urban Development: 21–67. ISSN 1936-007X. JSTOR 20868571. Retrieved 25 July 2024.
  12. ^ Nwadike, Amarachukwu Nnadozie; Wilkinson, Suzanne (3 February 2022). "Why amending building codes? An investigation of the benefits of regular building code amendment in New Zealand". International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation. 40 (1): 76–100. doi:10.1108/IJBPA-08-2020-0068. ISSN 2398-4708.
  13. ^ Nwadike, Amarachukwu; Wilkinson, Suzanne (2021). "Promoting Performance-Based Building Code Compliance in New Zealand". Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities. 35 (4). doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001603. ISSN 0887-3828.
  14. ^ Deuteronomy 22:8
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  18. ^ New International Encyclopedia
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Things To Do in Cook County

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Sand Ridge Nature Center

4.8 (96)
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River Trail Nature Center

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Palmisano (Henry) Park

4.7 (1262)

Driving Directions in Cook County

Driving Directions From Palmisano (Henry) Park to
Driving Directions From Lake Katherine Nature Center and Botanic Gardens to
Driving Directions From Navy Pier to

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Reviews for

Jeffery James

(5)

Very happy with my experience. They were prompt and followed through, and very helpful in fixing the crack in my foundation.

Sarah McNeily

(5)

USS was excellent. They are honest, straightforward, trustworthy, and conscientious. They thoughtfully removed the flowers and flower bulbs to dig where they needed in the yard, replanted said flowers and spread the extra dirt to fill in an area of the yard. We've had other services from different companies and our yard was really a mess after. They kept the job site meticulously clean. The crew was on time and friendly. I'd recommend them any day! Thanks to Jessie and crew.

Jim de Leon

(5)

It was a pleasure to work with Rick and his crew. From the beginning, Rick listened to my concerns and what I wished to accomplish. Out of the 6 contractors that quoted the project, Rick seemed the MOST willing to accommodate my wishes. His pricing was definitely more than fair as well. I had 10 push piers installed to stabilize and lift an addition of my house. The project commenced at the date that Rick had disclosed initially and it was completed within the same time period expected (based on Rick's original assessment). The crew was well informed, courteous, and hard working. They were not loud (even while equipment was being utilized) and were well spoken. My neighbors were very impressed on how polite they were when they entered / exited my property (saying hello or good morning each day when they crossed paths). You can tell they care about the customer concerns. They ensured that the property would be put back as clean as possible by placing MANY sheets of plywood down prior to excavating. They compacted the dirt back in the holes extremely well to avoid large stock piles of soils. All the while, the main office was calling me to discuss updates and expectations of completion. They provided waivers of lien, certificates of insurance, properly acquired permits, and JULIE locates. From a construction background, I can tell you that I did not see any flaws in the way they operated and this an extremely professional company. The pictures attached show the push piers added to the foundation (pictures 1, 2 & 3), the amount of excavation (picture 4), and the restoration after dirt was placed back in the pits and compacted (pictures 5, 6 & 7). Please notice that they also sealed two large cracks and steel plated these cracks from expanding further (which you can see under my sliding glass door). I, as well as my wife, are extremely happy that we chose United Structural Systems for our contractor. I would happily tell any of my friends and family to use this contractor should the opportunity arise!

Chris Abplanalp

(5)

USS did an amazing job on my underpinning on my house, they were also very courteous to the proximity of my property line next to my neighbor. They kept things in order with all the dirt/mud they had to excavate. They were done exactly in the timeframe they indicated, and the contract was very details oriented with drawings of what would be done. Only thing that would have been nice, is they left my concrete a little muddy with boot prints but again, all-in-all a great job

Dave Kari

(5)

What a fantastic experience! Owner Rick Thomas is a trustworthy professional. Nick and the crew are hard working, knowledgeable and experienced. I interviewed every company in the area, big and small. A homeowner never wants to hear that they have foundation issues. Out of every company, I trusted USS the most, and it paid off in the end. Highly recommend.

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Frequently Asked Questions

** Infrared thermography is non-destructive testing technique uses specialized cameras (thermal imagers) capable detect radiation invisible human eye emitted objects due temperature differences surface areas identify hidden issues like moisture intrusion foundational structures without damaging them during inspection process providing visual evidence problem areas.

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** Unlike conventional methods which may require drilling holes walls floors potentially causing further damage expensive repairs IR technology allows large surfaces inspected quickly noninvasively pinpoint exact locations problem enabling targeted repairs reducing overall cost time while minimizing disruption homeowner’s daily life.

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** When performed trained professionals familiar underlying principles equipment used results obtained via IR thermography highly reliable clearly illustrating affected regions allowing accurate diagnosis extent severity moisture issues presence other related problems such mold growth structural weaknesses etc.

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** Yes IR cameras sensitive enough pick up temperature variations caused presence excess moisture various building material surfaces including stucco drywall concrete block wood siding helping locate issues even if visually concealed ensuring thorough assessment entire foundation structure not just visible areas making technology versatile effective tool residential foundation repair services