The Impact of Research on Evidence Based Treatments

The Impact of Research on Evidence Based Treatments

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The Impact of Research on Evidence-Based Treatments in Orthodontics


Orthodontic treatment for children has undergone remarkable transformations over the past few decades, largely driven by rigorous scientific research and evidence-based approaches. What once relied heavily on traditional methods and practitioner intuition has now evolved into a sophisticated, data-driven field that prioritizes patient outcomes and scientific understanding.


Research plays a critical role in shaping modern orthodontic treatments. Early orthodontic evaluations are recommended around age seven Kids' dental alignment services dentistry. By systematically studying treatment approaches, long-term effects, and patient responses, researchers have developed more precise and effective interventions for children's dental alignment. These studies help orthodontists move beyond anecdotal experience, providing concrete, measurable insights into the most successful strategies.


One significant advancement has been the development of more nuanced understanding of dental growth and development. Longitudinal studies tracking children's dental progression have revealed complex patterns that inform earlier and more targeted interventions. This means orthodontists can now predict and address potential alignment issues with greater accuracy than ever before.


Moreover, evidence-based research has led to less invasive and more comfortable treatment options. Advanced imaging technologies, computer modeling, and comprehensive clinical trials have enabled the creation of more patient-friendly approaches. For instance, newer orthodontic techniques minimize discomfort and reduce treatment times compared to traditional methods.


The continuous integration of research findings into clinical practice ensures that children receive the most current, scientifically validated treatments. This approach not only improves clinical outcomes but also builds patient and parent confidence in orthodontic procedures.


As research continues to evolve, we can expect even more personalized and effective orthodontic treatments that prioritize both functional alignment and aesthetic considerations. The future of pediatric orthodontics looks bright, powered by the relentless pursuit of scientific understanding.

The historical evolution of research methodologies in orthodontic interventions for children represents a fascinating journey of scientific discovery and clinical innovation. Over the past century, orthodontic research has transformed dramatically, moving from subjective observations to rigorous, evidence-based approaches that prioritize patient outcomes and treatment effectiveness.


In the early 20th century, orthodontic research was primarily anecdotal and based on individual practitioners' experiences. Clinicians relied heavily on personal observations and limited case studies, with minimal standardized methodological frameworks. These early investigations, while well-intentioned, lacked the systematic approach needed to generate reliable, generalizable insights.


By the mid-20th century, researchers began implementing more structured research designs. Longitudinal studies emerged, allowing professionals to track dental and skeletal development over extended periods. This shift enabled a more comprehensive understanding of growth patterns, treatment responses, and long-term intervention outcomes in pediatric populations.


The late 20th and early 21st centuries marked a significant turning point with the rise of evidence-based practice. Researchers started incorporating advanced statistical methods, randomized controlled trials, and sophisticated imaging technologies. These methodological advancements allowed for more precise measurements, better understanding of treatment efficacy, and more personalized intervention strategies.


Contemporary orthodontic research now emphasizes interdisciplinary collaboration, integrating insights from genetics, biomechanics, and developmental psychology. Researchers utilize advanced technologies like 3D imaging, digital modeling, and computational analysis to develop more nuanced understanding of pediatric dental interventions.


This evolutionary trajectory demonstrates how research methodologies have progressively become more sophisticated, patient-centered, and scientifically rigorous, ultimately improving treatment outcomes and patient experiences in pediatric orthodontics.

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Insurance Coverage and Impact on Orthodontic Expenses

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Key Research Findings that Have Transformed Understanding of Pediatric Orthodontic Treatments


Over the past few decades, pediatric orthodontic treatments have undergone remarkable transformations, driven by groundbreaking research that has fundamentally reshaped our understanding of dental development and intervention strategies. These advances have not just improved treatment outcomes but have also significantly enhanced patient experiences.


One of the most significant research breakthroughs has been the deeper understanding of early intervention techniques. Researchers have discovered that identifying and addressing orthodontic issues during early childhood can prevent more complex dental problems later in life. Studies have shown that strategic interceptive treatments can guide jaw growth, correct misalignments, and reduce the need for more invasive procedures during adolescence.


Technological innovations have also played a crucial role. Advanced imaging techniques like 3D digital scanning and cone-beam computed tomography have allowed orthodontists to create more precise treatment plans. These technologies enable practitioners to visualize dental structures with unprecedented clarity, leading to more personalized and effective interventions.


Genetic research has further expanded our comprehension of orthodontic challenges. Researchers have identified specific genetic markers associated with dental irregularities, helping predict potential issues and develop more targeted treatment approaches. This genetic insight allows for more proactive and individualized care.


Moreover, longitudinal studies have provided critical insights into long-term treatment outcomes. By tracking patients over extended periods, researchers have developed a more nuanced understanding of how different interventions impact dental development and overall oral health.


These research findings have collectively shifted pediatric orthodontic treatments from a reactive to a more preventative and personalized model. The result is more efficient, less invasive, and more patient-friendly approaches that prioritize both functional and aesthetic outcomes.


As research continues to evolve, we can expect even more sophisticated and effective pediatric orthodontic treatments in the future, ultimately improving children's dental health and overall quality of life.

Payment Plan Options for Pediatric Orthodontic Care

Current Scientific Approaches to Evaluating Treatment Effectiveness and Long-Term Outcomes for Children's Orthodontic Care


In recent years, the field of orthodontics has witnessed a significant transformation in how researchers and clinicians evaluate the effectiveness of treatments for children. Gone are the days of relying solely on subjective observations and traditional methods. Today, a more comprehensive and evidence-based approach has emerged, combining advanced technologies, longitudinal studies, and sophisticated analytical techniques.


Modern research in children's orthodontic care focuses on multiple dimensions of treatment assessment. Researchers now employ advanced imaging technologies like 3D digital scanning and cone-beam computed tomography to track precise tooth movement and skeletal changes. These technologies provide unprecedented insights into treatment progression and outcomes that were impossible just a decade ago.


Longitudinal studies have become particularly crucial in understanding the long-term impacts of orthodontic interventions. By following patients over extended periods, scientists can now evaluate not just immediate aesthetic improvements, but also functional and psychological outcomes. This approach helps clinicians understand how early interventions might prevent more complex dental issues later in life.


Interdisciplinary collaboration has also become a hallmark of contemporary orthodontic research. Experts from fields like genetics, biomechanics, and developmental psychology now contribute to a more holistic understanding of treatment effectiveness. This approach recognizes that orthodontic care isn't just about straightening teeth, but about supporting overall developmental health.


Patient-reported outcomes and quality of life measures have gained significant importance in recent research. Researchers now recognize that successful treatment isn't just about technical precision, but also about patient comfort, psychological well-being, and individual satisfaction.


Statistical modeling and big data analysis have revolutionized how treatment effectiveness is evaluated. Machine learning algorithms can now predict treatment outcomes with remarkable accuracy, helping clinicians develop more personalized treatment plans.


As research continues to evolve, the future of children's orthodontic care looks increasingly precise, personalized, and patient-centered. The integration of advanced technologies, comprehensive research methodologies, and a holistic understanding of patient needs promises more effective and compassionate orthodontic treatments.

Factors Influencing Orthodontic Treatment Costs

Critical Analysis of Research Influence on Pediatric Orthodontic Clinical Decisions


In the rapidly evolving field of pediatric orthodontics, the integration of research-driven insights has become paramount in shaping treatment approaches and clinical decision-making. This essay explores the intricate relationship between academic research and practical clinical applications, highlighting how evidence-based practices are transforming orthodontic care for young patients.


Modern orthodontic practitioners increasingly rely on comprehensive research to inform their treatment strategies. Unlike past approaches that depended heavily on individual practitioner experience, today's clinical decisions are grounded in systematic studies, longitudinal research, and robust scientific methodologies. This shift ensures more predictable outcomes and personalized treatment plans that consider individual patient characteristics.


The impact of research is particularly significant in understanding developmental orthodontic challenges. Longitudinal studies tracking dental and facial growth patterns provide clinicians with nuanced insights into intervention timing, treatment efficacy, and potential long-term consequences of various orthodontic approaches. These research-driven insights allow for more targeted and less invasive interventions.


Technological advancements have further amplified research's role in clinical decision-making. Advanced imaging techniques, computational modeling, and genetic analysis now offer unprecedented understanding of craniofacial development. Orthodontists can now develop more precise, patient-specific treatment protocols based on comprehensive scientific evidence.


Moreover, evidence-based research has highlighted the importance of interdisciplinary approaches. Studies demonstrating connections between orthodontic treatments and broader health outcomes encourage collaboration among dental specialists, pediatricians, and researchers. This holistic perspective ensures more comprehensive patient care.


However, challenges remain in translating research into practical clinical applications. The gap between academic research and everyday practice continues to be a complex issue. Practitioners must continuously update their knowledge, critically evaluate new research, and be willing to adapt their methodologies.


In conclusion, research plays a transformative role in pediatric orthodontic practices. By providing scientifically validated insights, research enables more precise, personalized, and effective treatment strategies. As technology and scientific understanding continue to advance, the symbiosis between research and clinical practice will undoubtedly become even more sophisticated.

Comparing Different Orthodontic Practices and Their Pricing Strategies

Emerging Technologies and Research Techniques Shaping Modern Orthodontic Treatment Protocols for Children


The field of pediatric orthodontics has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years, driven by groundbreaking research and innovative technologies that are revolutionizing how we approach dental care for children. Gone are the days of one-size-fits-all treatment approaches; today's orthodontic interventions are becoming increasingly personalized, precise, and patient-friendly.


Digital imaging and 3D scanning technologies have been game-changers in treatment planning. Instead of uncomfortable traditional impressions, children can now undergo quick, comfortable digital scans that create incredibly detailed 3D models of their dental structures. These advanced imaging techniques allow orthodontists to develop more accurate treatment strategies, predicting tooth movement and potential challenges with unprecedented precision.


Artificial intelligence and machine learning are also making significant inroads into pediatric orthodontics. Sophisticated algorithms can now analyze dental images, predict growth patterns, and help clinicians develop more targeted intervention strategies. This means treatments can be more proactive, potentially addressing potential alignment issues before they become more complex problems.


Genetic research has opened up exciting new frontiers in understanding dental development. Researchers are now able to identify genetic markers that might predispose children to specific orthodontic challenges, allowing for earlier and more personalized interventions. This approach represents a shift from reactive to predictive dental care.


Biomaterials and advanced orthodontic appliances have also evolved dramatically. Modern braces are lighter, more comfortable, and more aesthetically pleasing than ever before. Some innovative designs even incorporate self-adjusting mechanisms that reduce the need for frequent manual adjustments, making the treatment process less stressful for young patients.


Importantly, these technological advances are being rigorously validated through evidence-based research. Clinicians are no longer relying solely on traditional methods but are continuously evaluating new techniques through robust scientific studies. This commitment to research ensures that emerging technologies are not just innovative but also genuinely effective and safe for children.


The future of pediatric orthodontics looks incredibly promising. As research continues to push boundaries and technology becomes more sophisticated, we can expect even more personalized, comfortable, and effective treatment protocols that prioritize both dental health and patient experience.

Additional Fees and Potential Hidden Expenses in Orthodontic Treatment

In the evolving landscape of medical and psychological treatments, comparative studies have become increasingly crucial in understanding the effectiveness of evidence-based approaches versus traditional treatment methods. The shift towards evidence-based practices represents a fundamental transformation in how we approach healing and patient care.


Traditional treatment methods have long relied on established practices, clinical experience, and intuitive approaches passed down through generations of practitioners. While these methods certainly hold value, they often lack the rigorous scientific scrutiny that modern research demands. Evidence-based treatments, by contrast, emerge from carefully conducted studies, systematic reviews, and empirical research that provide concrete data about treatment efficacy.


The significance of this approach cannot be overstated. By prioritizing research-driven interventions, healthcare professionals can move beyond anecdotal evidence and implement strategies that have been proven to produce measurable, consistent results. This approach allows for more targeted, efficient, and ultimately more effective patient care across various medical and psychological disciplines.


Comparative studies play a critical role in this transition. They meticulously examine traditional approaches alongside newer, research-backed methods, providing a comprehensive understanding of treatment outcomes. These studies help identify which interventions truly work, which need modification, and which should be reconsidered entirely.


For instance, in mental health treatment, evidence-based therapies like cognitive-behavioral therapy have demonstrated remarkable success rates compared to more traditional, less structured therapeutic approaches. Similar patterns emerge in medical treatments, where research-driven interventions often show improved patient outcomes and more precise treatment protocols.


However, it's important to note that evidence-based approaches don't completely invalidate traditional methods. Instead, they offer a more nuanced, scientifically informed approach to treatment. The goal is to integrate the best available research with clinical expertise and patient preferences.


As research continues to advance, the gap between traditional and evidence-based treatments narrows. Healthcare professionals are increasingly embracing a more holistic, data-driven approach that prioritizes patient outcomes and scientific rigor.


The future of treatment lies in this critical intersection of research, clinical experience, and innovative thinking. By continuing to prioritize evidence-based approaches, we can develop more effective, personalized, and compassionate methods of healing that truly address the complex needs of patients.

Future Research Directions and Potential Innovations in Pediatric Orthodontic Interventions


The field of pediatric orthodontics continues to evolve rapidly, presenting exciting opportunities for groundbreaking research and transformative treatments. As we look ahead, several promising areas of investigation hold the potential to revolutionize how we approach orthodontic care for children.


One of the most promising frontiers is the integration of advanced digital technologies and personalized medicine. Three-dimensional imaging and artificial intelligence are poised to create more precise diagnostic tools and treatment planning strategies. Researchers are exploring how machine learning algorithms can predict tooth movement and treatment outcomes with unprecedented accuracy, potentially reducing treatment times and improving patient experiences.


Biomaterial innovations represent another critical area of potential breakthrough. Scientists are developing smart materials that can actively respond to biological signals, potentially allowing for more gentle and efficient tooth alignment. These next-generation materials could minimize discomfort and reduce the duration of orthodontic interventions, making treatments more tolerable for young patients.


Genetic research is also opening new pathways for understanding individual orthodontic challenges. By mapping genetic markers associated with dental development and misalignment, clinicians might soon be able to create truly personalized treatment protocols that address each child's unique physiological characteristics.


Additionally, minimally invasive techniques are gaining significant attention. Researchers are investigating less traumatic approaches that can achieve optimal results while preserving more of the natural dental structure. This could mean shorter recovery times and reduced psychological stress for pediatric patients.


Interdisciplinary collaboration will be crucial in driving these innovations forward. Orthodontists, geneticists, materials scientists, and digital technology experts must work together to translate theoretical possibilities into practical clinical solutions.


As we move forward, the goal remains clear: developing more effective, efficient, and patient-friendly orthodontic interventions that support children's oral health and overall well-being.

 

International children in traditional clothing at Liberty Weekend

A child (pl.children) is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] The term may also refer to an unborn human being.[4][5] In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, in this case as a person younger than the local age of majority (there are exceptions like, for example, the consume and purchase of alcoholic beverage even after said age of majority[6]), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological adults.[1][7][8] Children generally have fewer rights and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions.

Child may also describe a relationship with a parent (such as sons and daughters of any age)[9] or, metaphorically, an authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."[10]

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Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD

In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] Legally, the term child may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines child as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier."[11] This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term child may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In Singapore, for example, a child is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21.[12][13] In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21.[14]

Some English definitions of the word child include the fetus (sometimes termed the unborn).[15] In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty.

Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or child custody, whether their parents divorce or not.

Developmental stages of childhood

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Early childhood

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Children playing the violin in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011
Children in Madagascar, 2011
Child playing piano, 1984

Early childhood follows the infancy stage and begins with toddlerhood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.[16][17] While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 5 or 6. However, according to the National Association for the Education of Young Children, early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives.

Middle childhood

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Middle childhood begins at around age 7, and ends at around age 9 or 10.[18] Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.[19] Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: autism, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and ADHD.[20]: 303–309  Special education, least restrictive environment, response to intervention and individualized education plans are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities.[20]: 310–311 

Middle childhood is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play.[20]: 338  During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.[21]

Late childhood

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Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding adolescence. Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as menarche, spermarche, and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11 and 14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty.[22] Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much less emotional being now.'[23] Preadolescents may well view human relationships differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of authority figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of self-identity, and to have increased feelings of independence: 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."'[24]

Developmental stages post-childhood

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Adolescence

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An adolescent girl, photographed by Paolo Monti

Adolescence is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, puberty usually begins before the teenage years (10—11 for girls and 11—12 for boys). Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, psychological and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks.

History

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Playing Children, by Song dynasty Chinese artist Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.

During the European Renaissance, artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however.[25]

The French historian Philippe Ariès argued that during the 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe,[26] however other historians like Nicholas Orme have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period.[27] Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher John Locke was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the tabula rasa, which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the Protestant countries of the Dutch Republic and England, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. Puritanism stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.[28]

The Age of Innocence c. 1785/8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.

The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century Enlightenment and the Romantic period that followed it.[29][30] Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel Emile: or, On Education. Building on the ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.[29] Sir Joshua Reynolds' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting The Age of Innocence emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing child and soon became a public favourite.[31]

Brazilian princesses Leopoldina (left) and Isabel (center) with an unidentified friend, c. 1860.

The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".[30] This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for example, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.[32]

Armenian scouts in 1918

With the onset of industrialisation in England in 1760, the divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as chimney sweeps,[33] often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.[34] As the century wore on, the contradiction between the conditions on the ground for poor children and the middle-class notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children.

British reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens.[35] The campaign eventually led to the Factory Acts, which mitigated the exploitation of children at the workplace[33][36]

Modern concepts of childhood

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Children play in a fountain in a summer evening, Davis, California.
An old man and his granddaughter in Turkey.
Nepalese children playing with cats.
Harari girls in Ethiopia.

The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since.[37] The genre of children's literature took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child's imagination. Lewis Carroll's fantasy Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "First Golden Age" of children's literature.

The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools.[38][39]

The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys.[40] The Boy Scouts was founded by Sir Robert Baden-Powell in 1908,[41][42] which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities.[43]

In the 20th century, Philippe Ariès, a French historian specializing in medieval history, suggested that childhood was not a natural phenomenon, but a creation of society in his 1960 book Centuries of Childhood. In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults.

In 1966, the American philosopher George Boas published the book The Cult of Childhood. Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in past times.[44]

In 2006, Hugh Cunningham published the book Invention of Childhood, looking at British childhood from the year 1000, the Middle Ages, to what he refers to as the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.[45]

Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In the modern era, many adults believe that children should not have any worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference.[29][30]

A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and is often seen as an integral part of coming of age. It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that widens their awareness of evil, pain or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels To Kill a Mockingbird and Lord of the Flies. The fictional character Peter Pan was the embodiment of a childhood that never ends.[46][47]

Healthy childhoods

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Role of parents

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Children's health

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Children's health includes the physical, mental and social well-being of children. Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety.[48] Children in certain parts of the world often suffer from malnutrition, which is often associated with other conditions, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria.[49]

Child protection

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Child protection, according to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse against children – including commercial sexual exploitation, trafficking, child labour and harmful traditional practices, such as female genital mutilation/cutting and child marriage".[50] The Convention on the Rights of the Child protects the fundamental rights of children.

Play

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Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage, Zimbabwe

Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children.[51] It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that virtually all children's social activities can be understood as "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or effort.[52][53][54][55]

It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers.[51] Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills.[51]

Ralph Hedley, The Tournament, 1898. It depicts poorer boys playing outdoors in a rural part of the Northeast of England.

Play is considered to be very important to optimal child development that it has been recognized by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights as a right of every child.[11] Children who are being raised in a hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play.[51]

The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions between adults and children in a learning environment. “Playful Structure” means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at a young age.[56]

Even though play is considered to be the most important to optimal child development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their development.[57]

Street culture

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Children in front of a movie theatre, Toronto, 1920s.

Children's street culture refers to the cumulative culture created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their secret world. It is most common in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban working class industrial districts where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference.

Young children's street culture usually takes place on quiet backstreets and pavements, and along routes that venture out into local parks, playgrounds, scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. It often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of the urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve as informal meeting and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep 'spirit of place' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as video games, and television, concerns have been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture.

Geographies of childhood

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The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of childhood, the many ways adult attitudes and behaviors affect children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications.[58]

The geographies of childhood is similar in some respects to children's geographies which examines the places and spaces in which children live.[59]

Nature deficit disorder

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Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by Richard Louv in his 2005 book Last Child in the Woods, refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,[60][61] resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.[62]

With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. “The average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media”.[63] Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of National Park visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.[64] The media has accelerated the trend for children's nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films.[65]

Age of responsibility

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The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time,[66] and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing.[citation needed] Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level.[67]

Education

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Children in an outdoor classroom in Bié, Angola
Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the school of Torvinen in Sodankylä, Finland, in the 1920s

Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life.[68] Formal education most often takes place through schooling. A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) recognizes the right of everyone to an education.[69] Education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at school may not be, with alternative options such as home-schooling or e-learning being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions.

Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from UNICEF indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education.[70] According to a UN report, warfare is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.[71] Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.[72][73]

Attitudes toward children

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Group of breaker boys in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. Child labor was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in Africa.

Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between.[74]

Child marriage

[edit]

In 2013, child marriage rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India.[75] According to a 2019 UNICEF report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal.[76] Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%.[77]

Fertility and number of children per woman

[edit]

Before contraception became widely available in the 20th century, women had little choice other than abstinence or having often many children. In fact, current population growth concerns have only become possible with drastically reduced child mortality and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global total fertility rate was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,[78] adding about 80 million people to the world population per year. In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50).[78] Although the number of children is also influenced by cultural norms, religion, peer pressure and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on the educational level of women, ranging from 5–8 children in women without education to less than 2 in women with 12 or more years of education.[78]

Issues

[edit]

Emergencies and conflicts

[edit]

Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the health, safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. wars and natural disasters. As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by armed conflicts and violence around the world.[79] Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development.[79] Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the physical and mental health of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster is natural, the rate of PTSD occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children.[80] However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent.[81][82]

Child protection

[edit]
 

Child protection (also called child welfare) is the safeguarding of children from violence, exploitation, abuse, abandonment, and neglect.[83][84][85][86] It involves identifying signs of potential harm. This includes responding to allegations or suspicions of abuse, providing support and services to protect children, and holding those who have harmed them accountable.[87]

The primary goal of child protection is to ensure that all children are safe and free from harm or danger.[86][88] Child protection also works to prevent future harm by creating policies and systems that identify and respond to risks before they lead to harm.[89]

In order to achieve these goals, research suggests that child protection services should be provided in a holistic way.[90][91][92] This means taking into account the social, economic, cultural, psychological, and environmental factors that can contribute to the risk of harm for individual children and their families. Collaboration across sectors and disciplines to create a comprehensive system of support and safety for children is required.[93][94]

It is the responsibility of individuals, organizations, and governments to ensure that children are protected from harm and their rights are respected.[95] This includes providing a safe environment for children to grow and develop, protecting them from physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and ensuring they have access to education, healthcare, and resources to fulfill their basic needs.[96]

Child protection systems are a set of services, usually government-run, designed to protect children and young people who are underage and to encourage family stability. UNICEF defines[97] a 'child protection system' as:

"The set of laws, policies, regulations and services needed across all social sectors – especially social welfare, education, health, security and justice – to support prevention and response to protection-related risks. These systems are part of social protection, and extend beyond it. At the level of prevention, their aim includes supporting and strengthening families to reduce social exclusion, and to lower the risk of separation, violence and exploitation. Responsibilities are often spread across government agencies, with services delivered by local authorities, non-State providers, and community groups, making coordination between sectors and levels, including routine referral systems etc.., a necessary component of effective child protection systems."

— United Nations Economic and Social Council (2008), UNICEF Child Protection Strategy, E/ICEF/2008/5/Rev.1, par. 12–13.

Under Article 19 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, a 'child protection system' provides for the protection of children in and out of the home. One of the ways this can be enabled is through the provision of quality education, the fourth of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, in addition to other child protection systems. Some literature argues that child protection begins at conception; even how the conception took place can affect the child's development.[98]

Child abuse and child labor

[edit]

Protection of children from abuse is considered an important contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as child labor, child trafficking and child selling, child sexual abuse, including child prostitution and child pornography, military use of children, and child laundering in illegal adoptions. There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as:

  • Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention
  • Minimum Age Convention, 1973
  • Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography
  • Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
  • Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
  • Hague Adoption Convention

Climate change

[edit]
 
A child at a climate demonstration in Juneau, Alaska

Children are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than adults. The World Health Organization estimated that 88% of the existing global burden of disease caused by climate change affects children under five years of age.[99] A Lancet review on health and climate change lists children as the worst-affected category by climate change.[100] Children under 14 are 44 percent more likely to die from environmental factors,[101] and those in urban areas are disproportionately impacted by lower air quality and overcrowding.[102]

Children are physically more vulnerable to climate change in all its forms.[103] Climate change affects the physical health of children and their well-being. Prevailing inequalities, between and within countries, determine how climate change impacts children.[104] Children often have no voice in terms of global responses to climate change.[103]

People living in low-income countries experience a higher burden of disease and are less capable of coping with climate change-related threats.[105] Nearly every child in the world is at risk from climate change and pollution, while almost half are at extreme risk.[106]

Health

[edit]

Child mortality

[edit]
World infant mortality rates in 2012.[107]

During the early 17th century in England, about two-thirds of all children died before the age of four.[108] During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[109] This has continued in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates have fallen across the world. About 12.6 million under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to 6.6 million in 2012. The infant mortality rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest average infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per 1,000 live births – over double the world's average.[107]

See also

[edit]
Listen to this article (3 minutes)
 
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This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 24 June 2008 (2008-06-24), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
  • Outline of childhood
  • Child slavery
  • Childlessness
  • Depression in childhood and adolescence
  • One-child policy
  • Religion and children
  • Youth rights
  • Archaeology of childhood

Sources

[edit]
  •  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education​, 118–125, Marope PT, Kaga Y, UNESCO. UNESCO.
  •  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Creating sustainable futures for all; Global education monitoring report, 2016; Gender review​, 20, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.

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Further reading

[edit]
  • Cook, Daniel Thomas. The moral project of childhood: Motherhood, material life, and early children's consumer culture (NYU Press, 2020). online book see also online review
  • Fawcett, Barbara, Brid Featherstone, and Jim Goddard. Contemporary child care policy and practice (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) online
  • Hutchison, Elizabeth D., and Leanne W. Charlesworth. "Securing the welfare of children: Policies past, present, and future." Families in Society 81.6 (2000): 576–585.
  • Fass, Paula S. The end of American childhood: A history of parenting from life on the frontier to the managed child (Princeton University Press, 2016).
  • Fass, Paula S. ed. The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World (2012) online
  • Klass, Perri. The Best Medicine: How Science and Public Health Gave Children a Future (WW Norton & Company, 2020) online
  • Michail, Samia. "Understanding school responses to students’ challenging behaviour: A review of literature." Improving schools 14.2 (2011): 156–171. online
  • Sorin, Reesa. Changing images of childhood: Reconceptualising early childhood practice (Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, 2005) online.
  • Sorin, Reesa. "Childhood through the eyes of the child and parent." Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education 14.1 (2007). online
  • Vissing, Yvonne. "History of Children’s Human Rights in the USA." in Children's Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and Opportunities (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023) pp. 181–212.
  • Yuen, Francis K.O. Social work practice with children and families: a family health approach (Routledge, 2014) online.
Preceded by
Toddlerhood
Stages of human development
Childhood
Succeeded by
Preadolescence